The environmental endocrine disruptor, bisphenol A, affects germination, elicits stress response and alters steroid hormone production in kiwifruit pollen

In vitro toxicity of the endocrine disruptor bisphenol A (BPA) to pollen, the male haploid generation of higher plants, was studied. BPA caused significant inhibition of both tube emergence and elongation of kiwifruit pollen in a dose-dependent manner, beginning at 10 mgÆl)1; morphological changes to tubes were also detected. Despite strong inhibition of pollen tube production and growth, a large percentage of treated cells remained viable. Immunoblotting experiments indicated that levels of BiP and 14-3-3, which are proteins involved in stress response, substantially increased in BPA-treated pollen compared to controls. The increases were dosedependent in the range 10–50 mgÆl)1 BPA, i.e. even when germination ability was completely blocked. Steroid hormones (17 b-estradiol, progesterone and testosterone) were detected in kiwifruit pollen, and their levels increased during germination in basal medium. In a BPA treatment of 30 mgÆl)1, larger increases in both estrogen and testosterone concentrations were detected, in particular, a six-fold increase of 17 b-estradiol over control concentration (30 min). The increased hormone levels were maintained for at least the 90 min incubation. Increasing concentrations of exogenous testosterone and 17 b-estradiol increasingly inhibited pollen tube emergence and elongation. Current data for BPA-exposed kiwifruit pollen suggest a toxicity mechanism that is at least in part based on a dramatic imbalance of steroid hormone production during tube organisation, emergence and elongation. It may be concluded that BPA, a widespread environmental contaminant, can cause serious adverse effects to essential pollen functions. On a broader scale, this chemical poses a potential risk to the reproductive success of higher plants.